Bias in the Law: A Definitive Look at Racial Prejudice in the Philippine Criminal Justice System: A Systematic Literature Review

This paper aims to identify communities in the Philippines that are prejudiced and discriminated against in life and before the law. It seeks to determine whether these biases are experienced because they are considered “others” or “different,” aside from belonging to minority populations. This study is relevant as prejudice and discrimination based on race or ethnicity, among other socially constructed identifiers, violate the principle of equality and non-discrimination. Filipinos have been discriminated against since it was first colonized by Spain some 500 years ago; and for discrimination and prejudice to continue in this modern day is a pressing concern. Through a systematic review of literature, the study found that racism is systemic and global; it is more pronounced across sections like when a person is of color, a minority, and poor; impunity and perpetuation of racial and ethnic discrimination is prevalent; ethnolinguistic groups who are the minority, including Muslims, are highly discriminated in the Philippines; and the one's "exclusion of the others" contribute to discrimination. The Philippines must address discrimination and prejudice by fulfilling its commitments to international conventions and treatises that seek the immediate end of all forms of discrimination. Law enforcers must guarantee equal protection as enumerated in the 1987 Philippine Constitution. The long overdue anti-discrimination bill must be passed to strengthen the protection of Filipinos against perpetrators of discrimination, whether they are individuals or institutions. It is recommended that more scholars study this subject comprehensively, particularly the nation’s criminal justice system.


Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief, 1993 United Nations General
Assembly Resolution on Elimination of All Forms of Religious Intolerance, and The Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (Legarda, 2011). On October 29, 1997, Republic Act No 8371 (1997, or the Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act, was passed. It mandated the creation of the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples, which is tasked to recognize, protect and promote the rights of Indigenous peoples in the country (National Commission on Indigenous Peoples, 1998).
Despite all these, lawmakers have been trying to pass a comprehensive anti-discrimination law that is envisioned to end all forms of discrimination in the Philippines from 2011 until 2022 (Legarda, 2011;Aquino, 2014;Ejercito, 2017;Cervantes, 2022). For instance, Senator Loren Legarda cited several instances of racial and ethnic discrimination in the country: 1) 64 of 90 discrimination cases filed with the Commission on Human Rights from January 2009 to April 2011 were from Mindanao, where approximately nine million indigenous peoples are; the Government reported to the UN in 2008 that racial discrimination is alien to the Philippines but IP groups reported incidences of militarization, enforced disappearances, harassment, and extrajudicial killings; a 2005 survey showed bias against Muslims; and a school imposing a uniform policy that was contrary to the religious belief of Muslim women, among others (Committee on the Elimination on Racial Discrimination, 2009;Legarda, 2011).
The lawmakers' attempts to enact a comprehensive law that will end all forms of discrimination in the country indicate that the existing laws are still not enough, and there is more to be done to ensure the protection of everyone regardless of race, ethnicity, and other social identifiers. In line with this, this study attempts to gather information on racial prejudice and biases experienced by ethnic and religious minorities in the country, including how they were treated according to the country's criminal justice system. This endeavor is challenging as even the State refused to acknowledge that racial discrimination is happening in the country as stated in a report to the UN in 2008 (Committee on the Elimination on Racial Discrimination, 2009;Legarda, 2011).
Despite the expected scant data on discrimination, the author is hopeful that this study will add to the body of knowledge on this very important and pressing topic affecting the world today. Through this, the author hopes to make the policy-makers and law enforcers take action and help end racial and ethnic discrimination in the Philippines through enactment of relevant laws and its strict enforcement, implementation of educational programs that will expand knowledge about human rights and human race, or capacity-building for ethnic and religious minorities to raise their awareness of their own rights, among others. By this, as envisioned by the State leaders that ratified the UDHR in 1948 after World War II, there will be universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms of all Filipinos. ISSN: 2948-4863 Vol. 2, No.3, 2023

Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this research is to identify through a systematic review of literature the communities and religious groups that experience unequal treatment because they are perceived as "others" or "different" and ascertain whether bias and discrimination exist in the current criminal justice system in the Philippines.
To guide the author, these questions are asked: 1. What are the biases in the criminal justice system in the Philippines in terms of racial discrimination?
2. What are measures that seek to address the racial prejudices in the country's criminal justice system?
The study focused on more recent literature starting from 2001. However, it did not discount other studies before the said year, especially those deemed essential and significant in discussing racial discrimination. To address RQ1, the researcher examined the number of studies published annually.
This includes journals or conference papers or guidelines papers related to racial bias in the criminal justice system. Concerning RQ2, the researcher considered whether the recommendations provided by the authors in the gathered studies addressed the research issues or analyzed the trends of the problem.

METHODOLOGY
This study examined how racial and ethnic prejudice is manifested or reflected in the criminal justice system in the Philippines using a systematic literature review (SLR). The method is essential as it thoroughly evaluates previous related studies and encourages the development of new theories that are relevant and useful for future studies and research. Unlike the typical literature review, SLR promotes transparency in the process and replication of result (Denyer & Tranfield, 2008).
SLR is a deliberate and attentive means of finding, analyzing, and interpreting a body of prior research on a subject. Its three main components are planning, review, and reporting, followed by resource identification, research selection, and data extraction (Kitchenham et al., 2009).
In the manual search process, the majority were electronic sources, focused on the most recent literature, particularly between the period 2001 to 2022. Primary sources were targeted in the search process, including journals and conference proceedings of organizations and institutions that deal with criminal justice and statutes and other legal instruments enacted and enforced by the State and law enforcement agencies. Organizational handbooks, memorandums and case files were also exhaustively reviewed for primary data, while reports and related studies provided secondary data. The author carefully developed search criteria that can be applied to this paper. It should be noted that the data on Journal of Advances in Humanities Research ISSN: 2948-4863 Vol. 2, No.3, 2023 United Frontiers Publisher 13 discrimination in the Philippines is scant; thus, considerations were given to sources published before 2021 as long as they fit the inclusion criteria.

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
The following subjects include peer-reviewed articles published in the last two decades: SLRs with clear research questions are used as priority sources regardless of the review search adopted by the researchers.
• Papers related to racial bias in law and discrimination in the Philippines and Filipinos abroad who are experiencing racial bias and discrimination • Papers related to racial biases in law and discrimination abroad show how this problem is systemic and global • Meta-analyses (MA) The following articles are excluded from consideration: • Localized literature searches with undefined research • Duplicate reports on the same study.
The author understands that in cases of multiple reports on the same topic, the most comprehensive should be used; however, the author also considered the limited sources on racial bias in law in the Philippines.

Data Collection
The following are the sources of the studies: • Journals or conference proceedings with full citation • International conventions, treatise, and agreements • Case studies

Data Analysis
The data has been tabulated to show: • The number and source of research papers issued each year in relation to RQ1 and RQ2.
• The number of studies in each major category, such as research trends or racial bias questions (addressing RQ1 and RQ2).

Thematic Analysis
From various studies, the author generated five major themes: racism is systemic and global; colored, minority, and poor are frequently discriminated against in the criminal justice system globally; racism is extended from communities to workplaces and online and negatively affects a discriminated person's overall health; agents of the state and majority frequently perpetuate racism and support if not encourage impunity; and Muslims and ethnic minorities are prejudiced and discriminated in the Philippines. Also discussed is whether or not artificial intelligence or algorithm in police patrolling employed in law enforcement in advanced countries target persons of color and ethnic minorities.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
It may seem that racial or ethnic discrimination is not as pervasive in the Philippines as in European countries where there is a significant population of ethnic minorities and persons of color, migrants or descendants of immigrants. This standpoint was affirmed when the Philippine Government reported in 2008 to UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination that "Racial discrimination is alien to the prevailing mores and culture of the Filipino People" and that, "Racial discrimination has never officially or factually existed in the Philippines, neither in a systemic nor formal nor intermittent nor isolated manner" because "Filipinos have essentially the same racial and ethnic origins" (Committee on the Elimination on Racial Discrimination, 2009;Legarda, 2011). This claim was refuted by the Committee (UNCERD) and stressed that "even well-intentioned or neutral policies may directly or indirectly have negative or undesired effects on race relations and lead to de facto discrimination." Thus, no country can claim that racial discrimination is nonexistent in its territory. The Committee further stressed that for a country to acknowledge, discrimination is a prerequisite to fighting and eventually eliminating the phenomenon (Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, 2009). This government mindset may have contributed to the fact that discrimination is an unpopular topic of discussion among and between communities and institutions and even among scholars. Only recently (2011), lawmakers started categorically expressing the need for a law that would specifically address discrimination in all its forms. Relatedly, the body of literature on discrimination, or inequalities among ethnic groups in the Philippines, is scant even until 2017 (Reyes et al., 2017).
Thus, it is safe to say that the same observation can be applied to literature pertaining to discrimination and its manifestations in the country's criminal justice system. Despite this, criminologists have long recognized that inequalitiesbe it because of race, ethnicity or economic status, exist in the criminal justice system. While others believe that observed inequalities are the result of increased criminal conduct among minorities, the weight of evidence suggests that it is just a partial explanation.
In this systematic literature review, the author covered 17 works that discuss discrimination in Journal of Advances in Humanities Research ISSN: 2948-4863 Vol. 2, No.3, 2023 United Frontiers Publisher 15 general, explaining in detail how these acts of discrimination are expressions of biases against race, ethnicity, and even economic status and how these biases are manifested before the law and courts.
From these works, the author generated the following themes:

Racism is Systemic and Global
Fundamental human rights across the globe are threatened by criminal justice systems that discriminate, harass, and intimidate, according to UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Michelle Bachelet. These manifestations of racism in the criminal justice system are manifested in arbitrary arrests, racial profiling, harassment, verbal and physical abuse, excessive use of force, ill-treatment, discriminatory stop-and-search measures, and even extrajudicial killings (Human Rights Watch, 2001;Bachelet, 2022).
Racism and ethnic discrimination are found in the workplace as expressed in the discriminatory work process, wage gap because of ethnic affiliation and skin color, ill-treatment in the workplace or micro-aggressions, among others (De Castro et al., 2008;Nadal, 2008;Bagalini, 2020;Forth et al., 2022a).
Racial discrimination in law enforcement and the criminal justice system is not unique to the Philippines; it is also experienced, and probably in the worst manner, in the UK, Australia, Brazil, India, Czeck Republic, Russia, and the US, per 17 studies reviewed. Worst, other forms of discrimination according to sex, gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, religion and even psychosocial disabilities exacerbate racial discrimination before the law and courts (Bachelet, 2022).
In areas where there is a significant population of ethnic minorities and persons of color, whether they are migrants or descendants of first generations of immigrants from Africa, India, Asia, and even Arab countries, it appears that racial discrimination in law and criminal justice system is deeply rooted or systemic. This systemic discrimination has been perpetuated and cemented over the years, either legally by the governments or implied as acted by the ruling majority, as in the case of discrimination against Africans and people of African descent in the US. African Americans have been fighting discrimination since their first enslavement in cotton plantations in the US and are continued until the most recent incident that sparked the "Black Lives Matter" movement on the Internet (read: global)the brutal murder of George Floyd by a police officer in 2020 (Silverstein, 2021;Bachelet, 2022;Britannica, 2022, December 4).
In the Philippines, it was found in a study that there is a disparity in access to basic services across major ethnic groups and areas, with the Muslim ethnic group having the lowest proportion of members who have access to safe water, sanitary toilet facilities and electricity. The Muslims, particularly the indigenous peoples, are the worst-off ethnic groups, while the non-indigenous/non-Muslim groups are the better-off groups (Reyes et al., 2017).
In 2005, the Human Development Network commissioned a survey and found the following Journal of Advances in Humanities Research ISSN: 2948-4863 Vol. 2, No.3, 2023 United Frontiers Publisher 16 Filipino stereotypes of Muslims: 1) A majority of Filipinos think that Muslims are probably more prone to run amok (55%) although probably not oppressive to women (59%); A plurality believes that Muslims are probably terrorists or extremists (47%) and that they probably consider themselves as Discrimination is systemic and global. Countries seek to end discrimination by signing treaties and international conventions. Some of these treaties and conventions are: • 1981 Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief.
• 1993 UN GA Resolution on Elimination of All Forms of Religious Intolerance.
• Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.

• 2015 Doha Declaration on Integrating Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice into the
Wider UN Agenda.
• Kyoto Declaration on Advancing Crime Prevention, Criminal Justice and the Rule of Law.

Colored, Minority, Poor & Criminal
Discrimination before the law and criminal justice is more pronounced when a person is of color, an ethnic minority, or poor. These three categorizations can be applied in summary to cases outside of the Philippines, like those experienced by Africans and people of African descent in the US; however, the same categories seemed not applicable to cases in the Philippines as the distinction here is leaning towards religious leaning, which can be a minority as in the case of Muslims (HDN-UNDP-NZAID, 2005), and economic status, which is not necessarily a majority, or 27% of the 111 million total Philippine population as of 2022 (Macasero, 2022).
Human Rights Watch (2001), for instance, documented cases of police targeting minorities as possible crime suspects solely based on their race or ethnicity. In England and Wales, persons of color (black) were 7.5 times more likely to be stopped and searched than whites; the same cases of likely being stopped and searched by the police were recorded in Maryland, US. The US war on drugs targets African and people of African descent, and more persons of color were sent to prison. In Australia, aboriginal people are more likely to be arrested than non-aborigines. Also, in the US, the majority (80 percent) of federal defendants who faced the death penalty were members of racial minorities, and capital punishment is most likely to be sought and imposed when a white person is killed. In Brazil, dark-skinned people shot by the police are almost twice as likely to be killed than whites shot by the police. In India, there were incidents of police ignoring, condoning, and even encouraging violence by Journal of Advances in Humanities Research ISSN: 2948-4863 Vol. 2, No.3, 2023 private individuals against racial minorities. And in Russia, enforcement of control of movement and residence often assumes ethnic or racial identifications (Human Rights Watch, 2001).
In the Philippines, particularly in the most recent war on drugs under the administration of President Duterte, the bias in law enforcement and the criminal justice system is more pronounced against the economically poor. Human Rights groups agree that Duterte's war on drugs is a war on the poor, like the drug wars in the US, Colombia, and Thailand. The police targets are from the poorest neighborhoods, and the same group represents most extrajudicial killings related to the war on drugs.
On the other hand, wealthy individuals and major drug lords and traffickers are spared and given their right to due process. The suspects were from the gray economy, working as food vendors or tricycle drivers, if not unemployed or underemployed (Barera, 2020). The poor are also the target of another law enforcement lawthe anti-tambay law. Although typically translated as loiterers, tambay (from the phrase standby) refers to persons loitering the streets because they want to, they have nothing to do or are unemployed. It is a common scene or more noticeable in densely populated areas like poor urban villages where the converging of people "doing nothing" is easily spotted (Gavilan, 2018;Musico, 2018).

Racism in Workplaces
Another common observation in the reviewed literature is the occurrence of racism in the workplace, which can be an extension of systemic discrimination experienced in the general aspect of the lives of an ethnic minority or racial group. Racial discrimination in workplaces is manifested in unequal treatment in the job recruitment process, the disparity in wages, and microaggressions, which may result in stress and even morbidity. Discrimination in the workplace based on ethnicity is prevalent in developed countries like Britain and US. These are manifested in wage gaps and recruitment preferences. Discrimination worsens as one's skin color darkens. Preference for lighter skin is also prevalent in the Philippines, as one can observe in television or radio advertisements; however, it is still to be studied whether this preference is extended to the workplace or a manifestation of "colonial mentality" (Bagalini, 2020;Forth et al., 2022a).
Filipinos who are most likely not discriminated against in the Philippines are discriminated against in workplaces abroad for being Filipino or Asians (De Castro et al., 2008). Similarly, Filipinos would be more likely to experience similar racial microaggressions as African Americans and Hispanic/Latin Americans, presumed to be criminals or intellectually inferior. The person's phenotype -skin, color, facial features, hair texture and perception as "Asian" may also be factors to racial microaggressions and race-related stresses (Nadal, 2008). Microaggressions can be verbal or behavioral slights, generally subtle and often unintentional or unconscious, that reflect a person's stereotypes or negative attitude toward a person of color, or other oppressed or marginalized groups such as women and LGBTQ.
Laws are in place to protect Filipinos from workplace discrimination in the Philippines; Journal of Advances in Humanities Research ISSN: 2948-4863 Vol. 2, No.3, 2023 however, these are particular to gender, physical capacity, and age. Republic Act 6725 prohibits discrimination against women in workplaces, such as non-hiring or placement in low-paying position because one is a woman. The employer will be fined or imprisoned (Republic Act No 6725, 1989).
Republic Act 11210 extended Maternity Leave to 105 days from the previous 90 days. Employers who refuse to grant this benefit or who fire a pregnant woman can be penalized (Republic Act No 11210, 2019). Republic Act 7877, or the Anti-Sexual Harassment Act, prevents sexual harassment in workplaces, and violators will be penalized (Republic Act No 7877, 1995). The Solo Parents' Welfare Act benefits solo parents, with flexible work schedules and a 7-day parental leave (Republic Act No 8972, 2000). There are also laws protecting the elderly and persons with disabilities against discrimination in the workplace, such as Republic Act 10911 or the Anti-age Discrimination in Employment Act (Republic Act No 10911, 2016) and Magna Carta of Disabled Persons Act Nos. 7277 (Republic Act No 7277, 1992) and 9442 (Republic Act No 9442, 2007). Presidential Decree 966 legally protects Filipino employees from racial discrimination as manifested in derogatory language and namecalling just because of a person's race, color, or ethnic origin (Official Gazette, 1976).

Impunity and Perpetuation of Racism
Across the 17 studies show that impunity and perpetuation of racial and ethnic discrimination are prevalent, with some governments and leaders even protecting the perpetrators, be they institutions or individuals. In the case of workplace discrimination, it is interesting how it was found wellestablished in the UK, and how the government is lenient to the companies by supporting against the recommendation of voluntary pay reporting instead of making it mandatory, thereby promoting transparency and open for reviews. It was also found that most companies in the UK have no job evaluation scheme to systematically assess the relative value (or comparable worth) of a job about other jobs within the workplace, regardless of who sits on that job (Forth et al., 2022b).
In law enforcement and the criminal justice system, impunity is very pronounced in the case studies in the Philippines, particularly the war on drugs and anti-tambay law. Barera (2020) found how the President openly advocated and ordered the extrajudicial killings of drug suspects, often incentivizing, praising, encouraging, and pressuring the police to produce results at whatever cost. The same study found how children became "collateral damage" and targets, either caught in crossfires or suspected drug offenders, they were killed in "legitimate" police operations or in vigilante-style operations (the popular riding-in-tandem gunmen). The drug war, surprisingly, was widely supported despite its ineffectiveness in addressing crime (penal populism), and it appealed to the middle class, overseas Filipino workers, or elites who wanted crime, poverty, and corruption addressed (Barera, 2020). Relatedly, legal experts and lawmakers looked at impunity as a symptom of a failed and failing justice system, adding that low conviction rates and long trial times make justice difficult to achieve and impunity rampant in the Philippines (Lopez, 2018). ISSN: 2948-4863 Vol. 2, No.3, 2023 Nevertheless, the international community, especially the UN, has always been on the lookout for racial discrimination in all its forms, calling countries, especially those signatories to international conventions, to comply with their commitments to the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, among others, like the enactment of laws that will end all forms of racial discrimination. The United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights called on the Philippines for the persistence of impunity for rights violations and police abuses (Conde, 2022).

Journal of Advances in Humanities Research
The Commission on Human Rights, on its part and despite the President's attack on the institution, stressed that speedy, impartial, and transparent investigations of drug war killings are crucial in delivering justice, thereby, addressing the observed 'persistent impunity and formidable barriers to In a study by Gecer and Mahinay (2018), which is relevant to contextualize the perpetuation of penal populism, and maybe impunity, looked at how legitimate media organizations in the Philippines framed the war on drugs of President Duterte. The content analysis of the drug war news of three major newspapers found that the following media frames were used: Law and Order, Crime and Justice Frame, Security and Defense frame, Conflict frame, and Responsibility frame. It appeared that media narration of the anti-drug campaign is neutral in tone, and there is no observable extreme manipulation of stories favoring one group over the other. This is given especially because most of them used the Law and Order, Crime and Justice frame, which are brief and concise. However, it cannot be discounted that a newspaper's bias can be reflected in other frames --Security and Defense frame, Conflict frame, and Responsibility frame, which may or may not justify the absence of the rule of law in police operations, the impunity, the extrajudicial killings, and even the justification that the drug war is valid and necessary for an orderly country (Gecer & Mahinay, 2018).

Muslims and ethnic minorities in the Philippines
This theme discusses in detail the discrimination against Muslims and ethnic minorities in the

Other Important Themes
An equally important theme found in the body of literature is how one perceives the "other", consciously or unconsciously, and how this perception translates to one's actionwhich can be good or bad.
One study (Bass, 2021) examined the relationships between constructs of racial bias and evaluations of accused individuals in the criminal justice system and the potential differences and similarities that may be associated with different levels of crime, particularly drug and violent crimes.
There were four groups that participated in the study, and they were asked to use a within-subjects design, viewing fictitious case records for "black" and "white" criminal offenders and completing measures of bias and perceptions of the sentencing decision and the offenders themselves. The study found that the relationships between constructs of racial bias and evaluations of accused individuals in the criminal justice system vary across the four studies. However, participants with greater explicit Journal of Advances in Humanities Research ISSN: 2948-4863 Vol. 2, No.3, 2023 United Frontiers Publisher 21 racial bias rated the Black target more negatively, endorsed punitive sanctions and that they deserved incarceration (Bass, 2021).
Another study (Brantingham et al., 2018) looked at the use of artificial intelligence (AI), particularly the bias of predictive algorithms, in police patrolling to verify or not claims that predictive algorithms encourage directed police patrols to target minority communities with discriminatory consequences for minority individuals. It found no significant differences in the proportion of arrests by the racial-ethnic group between control and treatment conditions; The total numbers of arrests at the division level declined or remained unchanged during predictive policing deployments; and arrests were numerically higher at the algorithmically predicted locations.
Related to the above is a study on how algorithms can assist criminal justice decision-making, particularly risk assessment, by addressing both accuracy and fairness. The study found at least six kinds of fairness, some incompatible with one another and some with accuracy (Berk et al., 2021). Build a database of race-related offences and profiles of persons apprehended or incarcerated; review and correct discriminatory policies of law enforcement institutions; create civilian board that will monitor conduct of law enforcers; prompt investigations of allegations of discrimination in law and provide remedies for victims; educate law enforcers to combat discrimination; and abolish death penalty. 1.Black men who reported more frequent encounters with racial discrimination were more likely to experience depression symptoms and thoughts of suicide at some point during their lifetime 2.Regularly occurring acts of racial discrimination that may initially seem minor can become increasingly stressful over time 1.Researchers, clinicians and community members must continue to work together in promoting the mental health needs of Black children and adults Journal of Advances in Humanities Research ISSN: 2948-4863 Vol. 2, No.3, 2023 United Frontiers Publisher 23

Methodology Findings Conclusion and Policy
How can a justice system perpetuate crime and corruption in the Philippines?
Journalistic Reporting 1.Low conviction rates and long trial times make justice difficult to achieve and impunity is rampant in the country 2.Extrajudicial killings are symptoms of a failed and failing justice system The signing of the Framework Agreement on the Bangsamoro has created new dynamics that are bringing latent land claims to the fore. Competing land claims are related to historical grievances, inadequate land reform policies, and the overlapping mandates of land management authorities. Land tenure information is incomplete and questionable, and existing land dispute resolution mechanisms are stretched to deal with ordinary land disputes.

Fight impunity and lawyers must help the victims of impunity
1. Systematic collection of empirical data on land claims, disputes and conflict prevalence 2. Assessment of the resilience and capacity of existing land dispute resolution mechanism 3. Establish an inventory of current land-related laws 4. Stabilize the community through different programs;5. Training on the mediation of locals in areas with high conflict potential ISSN: 2948-4863 Vol. 2, No.3, 2023  The disparity in access to services between ethnic groups is higher among Muslim and non-Muslim groups, with Muslims being the worst off. Data shows that the literacy rate and access to electricity and sanitation narrowed between 2000 and 2010.
1.Address the inequality in opportunities, particularly in secondary education, access to safe water and electricity, to level the playing field for the different ethnic groups, stimulate their inherent competitive ability and strive to improve themselves. 2.Policy-makers can use to the study to reduce the level of inequality in opportunities among different ethnic groups in the country.  Review of literatures and analysis of data in criminology, computer science, and statistics and use of empirical illustration using data from arraignments.
1. There are at least six kinds of fairness, some of which are incompatible with one another and with accuracy.
The need to consider challenging trade-offs when assessing risk in applications beyond criminology, such as mortgage lending. ISSN: 2948-4863 Vol. 2, No.3, 2023 Tynes et al. (2015) Country: US

Methodology Findings Conclusion and Policy
Explain how racial discrimination extends to online through experiences of cyberbullying of adolescents of color A mixed method is used to investigate the risk and protective variables related to online victimization.
Online racial discrimination and hate activity associated with the election of the first African-American president increased, with perpetrators hiding in their online privacy.
Increased online time increases the risk of racial discrimination and mental health problems, so more studies are needed to understand their impact.

Methodology Findings Conclusion and Policy
Examine the association between work discrimination and morbidity among Filipinos in the United States, independent of more-global measures of discrimination.
Data analyses in negative binomial regression found an association between work discrimination and health conditions.
Filipino workplace discrimination was associated with increased health conditions even after controlling for other factors.
Racial discrimination in the workplace is linked to poor health among Filipino Americans.

Methodology Findings Conclusion and Policy
Examines differences in the perceptions of racial microaggressions and race-related stress between one East Asian American group (Chinese Americans) and one marginalized Asian American group (Filipino Americans).
Online survey and MANOVA analysis.
Filipino and Chinese Americans are more likely to experience racial microaggressions and race-related stress due to their phenotypes.
Disaggregate research data on Asian American populations, examine racial microaggressions and recognize ethnic group differences.

Methodology Findings Conclusion and Policy
Test the bias of predictive procedures used for police patrol.
Analysis of arrest data from the Los Angeles predictive policing experiments.
1.No significant differences in the proportion of arrests by the racial-ethnic group between control and treatment conditions. 2. The total number of arrests at the division level declined or remained unchanged during predictive policing deployments. 3. Arrests were numerically higher at the algorithmically predicted locations. When adjusted for the higher overall crime rate at algorithmically predicted locations, however, arrests were lower or unchanged.
1. The introduction of predictive policing did not increase arrests overall, though treatment prediction boxes did see significantly more arrests than control prediction boxes.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The studies and journalistic reports reviewed confirmed that racial and ethnic discrimination is global and no country, regardless of their economic advancement, can claim that all persons in their place are being equally treated before the law and are afforded the dignity they inherently deserve.
The dynamics of racism and ethnic discrimination are more complex, if not different, across countries or communities of different economic status, as in the case of discrimination happening in a developing country like the Philippines, compared to the cases in highly developed and advanced countries like the US and UK.
It is observed that the persons experiencing racial and ethnic discrimination in highly developed countries are persons of color from countries in Asia, Latin America, Africa, and India, including their descendants, even though born and raised in the host countries (Nadal, 2008;de Castro, et.al., 2008;Bagalini, 2020;Forth, et.al., 2022b) In the Philippines, discrimination is more focused on one's religious and ethnic identification rather than skin color as in the case of Muslims who are perceived as "terrorists" and ethnic minorities who are worst off compared to major ethnolinguistic groups in terms of access to basic services such as education, clean water and sanitation, and electricity (Reyes, et.al, 2017;HDN-UNDP-NZAID, 2005; From the premise that discrimination in the Philippines is not racial but rather economic, discrimination in law enforcement and the criminal justice system is more pronounced towards the poor. It was not found in the reviewed literature though, whether the discrimination is compounded when a person belongs to an ethnic or religious minority, or in other discriminated socially constructed group biases like gender identity. Barera (2020) extensively discussed in her paper how poor drug suspects were stripped of their basic human rights before the law, and how the State agents blatantly disregarded the rights of the children that they resigned to the crisis by accepting the excuse that the children are "collateral damage" of the war on drugs. If there is a similarity in the Philippine experience (developing country) and the US experience (highly developed country), the suspects were commonly the poor.
The 1987  Section 1 of the Bill of Rights is clear "No person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, nor shall any person be denied the equal protection of the laws." One's protection before the law is explained in Section 2, "The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects against unreasonable searches and seizures of whatever nature and for any purpose shall be inviolable, and no search warrant or warrant of arrest shall issue except upon probable cause to be determined personally by the judge after examination under oath or affirmation of the complainant and the witnesses he may produce, and particularly describing the place to be searched and the persons or things to be seized." In law enforcement, the Constitution clearly states that a suspect of a criminal offense has the right to due process, shall be presumed innocent until proven guilty, and has the right to counsel and to a speedy, impartial and public trial Philippine Constitution, 1987 However, these laws were blatantly violated, especially during the war on drugs, and even the international and national human rights watch groups called on the Philippines for its violations.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the systematic reviewed of literature (see Annex A for the summary), it was found that Muslims, among other ethnic minorities, are prejudiced and discriminated; relatedly, the Philippine criminal justice system tends to be discriminatory against the economically poor, although not necessarily belonging to ethnic minority and Muslim populations.
Race and ethnicity are social constructsone was originally meant to rationalize and legalize subjugation, and the other was meant to justify one's perceived superiority. These two social identifiers resulted to hundreds of years of enslavement, violent deaths, and more recently, mental and other health illnesses, hatred towards another group, not just in the Philippines, as experienced during colonization, but in other countries as well.
The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (United Nations Human Rights, 1965) is clear: "Discrimination between human beings on the grounds of race, colour or ethnic origin is an obstacle to friendly and peaceful relations among nations and is capable of disturbing peace and security among peoples and the harmony of persons living side by side even within one and the same State, and that "the existence of racial barriers is repugnant to the ideals of any human society." To address the problem, it is important that the Philippines, as State-party to the convention, adheres to its commitment, among others, to condemn racial discrimination and undertake policies to eliminate all its forms; condemn racial segregation and apartheid and undertake to prevent and prohibit and eradicate all practices of this nature; condemn all propaganda and all organizations which are espousing the superiority of one race or ethnic group over the others; assured effective protection and remedies through national tribunals and other State institutions against any acts of racial discrimination; undertake education and information dissemination programs to combat prejudices and to promote understanding, tolerance, and friendship among nations and racial or ethnic groups. As law enforcers, it is important to always go back to the tenets of equal protection before the lawthe 1987 Philippine Constitution, Bill of Rights, and law enforcement manuals.
Another important issue that must be addressed is legal protection against perpetrators of discrimination. It is about time that Congress pass the long-overdue anti-discrimination bill that has been pending in the House and Senate since 2011. ISSN: 2948-4863 Vol. 2, No.3, 2023 In terms of contribution to the body of knowledge, it is recommended that more scholars study this subject comprehensively, particularly, the nation's criminal justice system. While there is a general perception that the law is biased against the poor and minorities, the claim would be more solid if backed up by scientific studies. Relatedly, law enforcement institutions are encouraged to be more transparent and truthful in reporting crimes, so, information about the subject is reliable.

LIMITATIONS
The conduct of this study differs from the methodology of Kitchenham et al. (2009). The reviewed literature was searched manually online for information that is relevant to the subject of the study. When conducting this type of research, researchers typically work in teams of several persons to cover the extensive body of knowledge related to the topic and to ensure that the works are thoroughly searched. In this study, only the author performed a manual search. Another problem is the limited systematic studies about the link of race and discrimination to the Philippine criminal justice system. To make up for this lack, the author used journalistic reports instead; it is recognized that one cannot come up with a definitive conclusion of the impact of discrimination on the discriminated groups as journalistic reports only cover a short period of time or less than five years.
Ethical Statement: This study followed ethical standards in research and publication including proper attribution of published works cited in this systematic review of related literature.

Consent to Participate:
The author has no known competing financial interests or personal relationships which affect the work reported in this article. Consent for Publication: We do not have any person's data in any form.